1.1 Affix

An affix is a morpheme added to a word to change its meaning or grammatical function. Affixes include prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and circumfixes, though the most common in English are prefixes and suffixes.

Types of Affix

1. Prefixes: Added to the beginning of a word (e.g., "un-" in "undo").

2. Suffixes: Added to the end of a word (e.g., "-ing" in "running").

Examples of Suffixes

1. -s (cats)

2. -ed (talked)

3. -ing (playing)

4. -ly (quickly)

5. -er (bigger)

6. -est (largest)

7. -ment (enjoyment)

8. -ness (happiness)

9. -less (hopeless)

10. -ful (beautiful)

11. -able (capable)

12. -ible (edible)

13. -al (personal)

14. -ial (commercial)

15. -y (happy)

16. -ic (economic)

17. -ical (logical)

18. -ous (dangerous)

19. -ious (various)

20. -ive (active)

21. -ative (creative)

22. -ative (communicative)

23. -ition (condition)

24. -ion (celebration)

25. -ation (organization)

26. -ition (competition)

27. -or (actor)

28. -er (teacher)

29. -ity (activity)

30. -ty (security)

31. -ness (kindness)

32. -ship (friendship)

33. -hood (childhood)

34. -dom (freedom)

35. -ism (realism)

36. -ist (artist)

37. -ian (musician)

38. -ence (existence)

39. -ance (attendance)

40. -ant (assistant)

41. -ent (student)

42. -ary (dictionary)

43. -ory (observatory)

44. -ence (independence)

45. -ance (importance)

46. -ant (participant)

47. -ent (resident)

48. -al (arrival)

49. -ial (material)

50. -ar (circular)

Examples of Prefixes

1. un- (undo)

2. re- (redo)

3. in- (incomplete)

4. im- (impossible)

5. ir- (irregular)

6. il- (illegal)

7. dis- (disagree)

8. en- (enable)

9. em- (embark)

10. non- (nonexistent)

11. in- (inside)

12. over- (overlook)

13. mis- (misunderstand)

14. sub- (submarine)

15. pre- (preview)

16. inter- (international)

17. fore- (foresee)

18. de- (deactivate)

19. trans- (transport)

20. super- (superstar)

21. semi- (semicircle)

22. anti- (antibiotic)

23. mid- (midterm)

24. under- (underestimate)

25. extra- (extraordinary)

26. co- (cooperate)

27. auto- (autobiography)

28. bio- (biology)

29. counter- (counterattack)

30. eco- (ecosystem)

31. ex- (ex-boyfriend)

32. hyper- (hyperactive)

33. inter- (interact)

34. macro- (macrocosm)

35. micro- (microscope)

36. multi- (multinational)

37. neo- (neoclassical)

38. omni- (omnivore)

39. post- (postpone)

40. pro- (proactive)

41. self- (selfish)

42. tele- (television)

43. tri- (triangle)

44. ultra- (ultrasound)

45. un- (unnecessary)

46. uni- (universe)

47. sub- (subway)

48. trans- (transit)

49. il- (illegible)

50. im- (impatient)

1.2 Definition of Form Classes

Form classes, also known as content words, are categories of words that have a definable meaning and can form new words through affixation. They include nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs.

Kinds of Form Classes

1. Nouns: Words that name people, places, things, or ideas (e.g., "cat," "city," "happiness").

2. Adjectives: Words that describe nouns (e.g., "happy," "blue," "quick").

3. Verbs: Words that describe actions or states (e.g., "run," "is," "think").

4. Adverbs: Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (e.g., "quickly," "very," "well").

More Hints on Form Classes

• Nouns often follow determiners like "the," "a," "some," and can often be pluralized (e.g., "dogs").

• Adjectives can be used in comparative and superlative forms (e.g., "happier," "happiest").

• Verbs change form to indicate tense, mood, and aspect (e.g., "walk," "walked," "walking").

• Adverbs often end in "-ly" (e.g., "slowly"), though many do not (e.g., "fast").

1.3 Definition of Structure Words

Structure words, also known as function words, are words that have little lexical meaning but serve to express grammatical relationships among other words within a sentence. They include determiners, pronouns, prepositions, auxiliaries, intensifiers, conjunctions, interjections, sentence connectors, subordinators, and question words.

Kinds of Structure Words

1. Determiners: Words that introduce nouns (e.g., "the," "a," "some").

2. Pronouns: Words that replace nouns (e.g., "he," "she," "it").

3. Prepositions: Words that show the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a sentence (e.g., "in," "on," "at").

4. Auxiliaries: Helping verbs that accompany main verbs to form different tenses, moods, or voices (e.g., "is," "have," "can").

5. Intensifiers: Words that strengthen the meaning of other words (e.g., "very," "so").

6. Conjunctions: Words that connect clauses, sentences, or words (e.g., "and," "but," "or").

7. Interjections: Words or phrases that express strong emotion or surprise (e.g., "oh," "wow").

8. Sentence Connectors: Words that link sentences or clauses (e.g., "however," "therefore").

9. Subordinators: Words that introduce subordinate clauses (e.g., "because," "although").

10. Question Words: Words used to ask questions (e.g., "who," "what," "where").

Explanation and Examples of Structure Words

• Determiners:

  • Articles: "the" (definite), "a/an" (indefinite) - The cat sat on a mat.

  • Demonstratives: "this," "that," "these," "those" - This book is interesting.

  • Possessives: "my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," "their" - Her house is big.

  • Quantifiers: "some," "any," "few," "many" - Few people came to the party.

• Pronouns:

  • Personal: "I," "you," "he," "she," "it," "we," "they" - She is happy.

  • Possessive: "mine," "yours," "his," "hers," "ours," "theirs" - The book is mine.

  • Reflexive: "myself," "yourself," "himself," "herself," "itself," "ourselves," "themselves" - He did it himself.

  • Relative: "who," "whom," "whose," "which," "that" - The person who called is my friend.

  • Demonstrative: "this," "that," "these," "those" - These are mine.

  • Interrogative: "who," "whom," "whose," "which," "what" - What is your name?

• Prepositions:

  • Common examples: "in," "on," "at," "by," "for," "with," "about," "against," "between" - The book is on the table.

• Auxiliaries:

  • Primary: "be," "have," "do" - She is going. They have left. Do you know?

  • Modal: "can," "could," "may," "might," "shall," "should," "will," "would," "must" - He can swim. You should go.

• Intensifiers:

  • Examples: "very," "so," "too," "extremely," "quite" - She is very smart.

• Conjunctions:

  • Coordinating: "and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "yet," "so" - I wanted to go, but it was too late.

  • Subordinating: "because," "although," "since," "unless," "if" - She left because it was late.

• Interjections:

  • Examples: "oh," "wow," "oops," "hey" - Wow, that's amazing!

• Sentence Connectors:

  • Examples: "however," "therefore," "moreover," "thus" - It was raining; however, we went out.

• Subordinators:

  • Examples: "because," "although," "if," "when," "while" - Although it was raining, we went out.

• Question Words:

  • Examples: "who," "what," "where," "when," "why," "how" - Where are you going?

1.4 Kinds of Determiners

Determiners are words placed in front of nouns to clarify what the noun refers to. They include articles, demonstratives, possessives, and quantifiers.

Examples and Use of Different Kinds of Determiners

1. Articles:

   • Definite: "the" - The dog barked.

   • Indefinite: "a," "an" - A dog barked.

2. Demonstratives:

   • "this," "that," "these," "those" - This cat is cute.

3. Possessives:

   • "my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," "their" - Their house is big.

4. Quantifiers:

   • "some," "any," "few," "many," "much," "several," "all," "both," "each," "every" - Many people attended the event.

Pre-Determiners, Central Determiners, and Post-Determiners

• Pre-Determiners: Words that come before central determiners to give additional information about quantity or amount (e.g., "all," "both," "half") - All the students passed.

• Central Determiners: The main determiners that determine the reference of the noun (e.g., "the," "a," "some," "my") - My book is on the table.

• Post-Determiners: Words that come after central determiners to specify further (e.g., "many," "few," "several") - The many problems were discussed.

Exercises

1. Identify the form class (noun, verb, adjective, or adverb) in the following sentences:

   1. She quickly ran to the store.

   2. The blue car is mine.

   3. Happiness is the key to life.

   4. He sings beautifully.

2. Underline the structure words in the following sentences:

   1. She will arrive at 6 PM.

   2. They can play if they finish their homework.

   3. This is the book that I was talking about.

   4. Wow, you did an amazing job!

3. Complete the sentences with the correct determiner:

   1. ____ cat is sleeping on the mat. (this/these)

   2. ____ books are mine. (this/these)

   3. I have ____ money left. (some/any)

   4. She wants to buy ____ car. (a/the)